AD79 - Recently Updated Pages

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clemio — Wed, 02 Dec 2009 06:52:23 CST

The villa dates from the 2nd century BC and was probably connected to the wine trade, as a large collection of amphorae was found next to the peristyle.	The villa was discovered in 1974, 250m east of the Villa of Poppaea, during the construction of a school. Unfortunately it is not open to the public, and we therefore have little photographic material for this villa. The photographs here are provided by the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei. The rustic building is built on two levels arranged around a monumental peristyle with a double order of doric columns in tufa brought from nearly Nocera (pictured left). The villa was named following the finding of a bronze seal bearing the name of the presumed owner. Also found were the bodies of a number of victims of the catastrophe (above) as well as a quantity of coins and jewellery. A box (pictured left) containing 170 coins together with gold and silver jewellery was found in the peristyle. The wooden framework of the box is covered by iron leaves, and is inscribed with three names, possibly the makers of the box.

The villa dates from the 2nd century BC and was probably connected to the wine trade, as a large collection of amphorae was found next to the peristyle.

The villa was discovered in 1974, 250m east of the Villa of Poppaea, during the construction of a school. Unfortunately it is not open to the public, and we therefore have little photographic material for this villa. The photographs here are provided by the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei.

The rustic building is built on two levels arranged around a monumental peristyle with a double order of doric columns in tufa brought from nearly Nocera (pictured left).

The villa was named following the finding of a bronze seal bearing the name of the presumed owner. Also found were the bodies of a number of victims of the catastrophe (above) as well as a quantity of coins and jewellery.

A box (pictured left) containing 170 coins together with gold and silver jewellery was found in the peristyle. The wooden framework of the box is covered by iron leaves, and is inscribed with three names, possibly the makers of the box.

The villa dates from the 2nd century BC and was probably connected to the wine trade, as a storeroom containing a large collection of amphorae was found next to the peristyle.

Link to new site: http://sites.google.com/site/ad79eruption

AD79 - Year of Destruction

clemio — Fri, 02 Oct 2009 06:47:22 CDT

Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae, Oplontis and Boscoreale were lost to the world in late August AD79 to lie hidden for almost 1800 years, a time capsule of Roman life in the first century AD.

This website provides details on:

the story of their destruction and re-discovery

the history of the region

the daily life of the people

an in-depth look at what can be seen today

links to other related sites

Location

As this site uses Google Maps extensively, please note the following:
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Navigating Google Map

You can use your mouse or the directional arrows to pan left, right, up and down to see areas that are hidden off-screen. You can also use the slider to zoom in and zoom out.
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Directions that get you there
Click on one of the location pins. Type in start location (or end location) – Google Maps plots the route for you, displaying it visually on the map, together with step-by-step directions for getting there (or back from there).

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For a full description of the facilities available with Google Maps, or to find out how to create your own, you can use this link.

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Screen Resolution

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This site has been optimised to be viewed with Firefox at a resolution of 1024 x 768. Other resolutions have been tested and should be fine, although the pictures will be distorted if the horizontal to vertical ratio varies from the optimum. If the layout looks 'odd', please let us know and we'll check it out.

Versions of Internet Explorer have issues with some of Wetpaint's features, such as Slide Show and Video. If you are unable to see the slide shows, please bear with us - its not our fault! (Better still, get Firefox). The site occasionally has an optional link to an external 3D image. If you wish to view it, you will require to have Quicktime loaded on your computer.

Latest News

Ancient theatre masks re-discovered in Pompeii .....................July 21, 2009
set of 15 life-size masks, reminiscent of ancient Roman drama, have been re-discovered in Pompeii after being forgotten for over two centuries.
(Rosella Lorenzi, Discovery News).

Marble relief uncovered in Herculaneum .........................February 18, 2009
marble relief displaying Dionysiac scenes was discovered in Herculaneum in a large room with fourth style decoration in a partly excavated residence in the so-called northwest insula.
(Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei).

300th anniversary of the Rediscovery../........................December 10, 2008
aples plays host to a series of events to mark next year's 300th anniversary of the rediscovery of the ancient Roman city of Herculaneum.
(BBC News - Europe).

Italy declares Pompeii Emergency ..............................................July 4, 2008

ompeii has fallen into such disrepair that the Italian government has declared a "state of emergency" in a bid to save the ruins.
(BBC News - Europe).

Roman Throne found in Herculaneum ............................December 5, 2007
he remains of a Roman throne have been found in the ruins of Herculaneum. The remains were found buried 25m (82 ft) below ground, near the Villa dei Papyri.
(BBC News in Pictures).

Excavations at the Villa of the Papyri to Resume ............October 24, 2007
rcheologists have resumed their search for a library of Greek and Latin masterpieces thought to lie under volcanic rock at the ancient Roman site of Herculaneum.
(Richard Owen, The Times).

Painted Roman Sculpture Found ............................................March 25, 2006
he head of a female warrior was retrieved this week from the debris of a collapsed escarpment at Herculaneum, the seaside resort for the rich and powerful of ancient Rome that was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79.
(Richard Owen, The Times).

Rare Pompeii Silver Unveiled .....................................................July 19, 2005
magnificent 20-piece Roman silver dinner service was displayed publicly for the first time since its owners fled the eruption of AD79. Discovered in a wicker basket five years ago, it is now restored and will be displayed in the National Archeological Museum of Naples in 2006.
(David Willey, BBC News).

Battle for the Books of Herculaneum .........................................May 22, 2005
he popular author, Robert Harris, joins academics in the controversy over whether to resume excavations at the Villa of the Papyri or to leave the site for future generations to explore.
(Peter Popham, Sunday Independent).

Recent Updates

Villa Imperiale
Added the Villa Imperiale with plan, text and photographs.

Pompeii - Public Buildings
Amalgamated 'Public Buildings' and 'Temples' under one heading.

The City Gates
Added a section on the gates with details on individual gates.

House of the Moralist
Added plan and revised text to give a more detailed description.

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Links and Video Clips

clemio — Sun, 30 Aug 2009 12:54:54 CDT

Related Sites

AD79 - Year of Destruction - our new ads free site that will be taking over from this site. Go there now for the latest maintained version.

SAP (Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei) - official site giving comprehensive coverage of excavations at Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Stabiae and Boscoreale.

Interactive Map of Pompeii - interactive map of Pompeii allowing map and 3D views of points of interest - under development by Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei.

The Friends of Herculaneum Society - society for the promotion of research into, and preservation of, the artifacts and buildings of Herculaneum.

Restoring Ancient Stabiae - a cultural project supported by both the US and Italian Governments.

Short Virtual Tour of Herculaneum - A 3D exploration of some of the main buildings in the town of Herculaneum.

Full Virtual Tour of Herculaneum - A full 3D exploration of Herculaneum including the Theatre provided by the Herculaneum Conservation Project. Recently updated!

Roman Herculaneum - original website on which this Wiki is based.

Roman Aqueducts - extensive site on Roman water supply.

Pompeii in Pictures - a comprehensive photographic record of Pompeii. Well worth a visit.

Tourist Information - includes opening times, prices, etc.

Impact of the AD79 Explosive Eruption of Pompeii, II - Scientific paper on the causes of death of the inhabitants by Giuseppe Luongo. File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat.

Pompeian Households: An On-line Companion - this site includes detailed documentary information on 30 Pompeian houses and their contents, consisting of 865 rooms and more than 16,000 artifacts.

Pompeiana.org - an online resource of all things Pompeian, including a basic GIS.

Philodemus Project - on unrolling, reading, and interpreting the Herculaneum papyri.

Blogging Pompeii - a blog for all those who work on Pompeii and the other archaeological sites of the Bay of Naples.

Fasti at Pompeii - Fasti Online by the International Association for Classical Archaeology (AIAC) giving summary details of excavations throughout the Pompeii area.

Swedish Pompeii Project - a study of Insula V, 1, instigated by the Swedish Institute in Rome.

World of Pompeii - a series of links too numerous to mention covering historical sources, rediscovery and research.

Video Player

Video Clips

The Video Player will play a selection of clips from www.youtube.com. The current playlist is:

......Title: Pompeii, The Last Day (an excerpt from a BBC documentary)
..--Time: 05.00
....From: skribba2001

......Title: The Wonders of Pompeii
..--Time: 02.52
....From: racingvic

......Title: Herculaneum
..--Time: 04.18
....From: sailor2626

......Title: Pompei - Viaggio virtuale nella città di Pompei
..--Time: 10.52
....From: emilanociao

......Title: Ercolano - Ricostruzione al computer della città di Ercolano
..--Time: 08.43
....From: emilanociao

Playing the Video Player:

To view a video click the <PLAY> button (bottom left).

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Infrastructure

clemio — Sat, 22 Aug 2009 05:50:42 CDT

Water Supply

Route of the Aqua Augusta

The Aqua Augusta or Serino Aqueduct carried water from the spring source of Fons Augustus near the present day town of St. Lucia di Serino (at an altitude of 376m) to its termination at the Piscina Mirabilis which lies 10 metres above sea level at Misenum west of Naples.

From the source, the aqueduct ran mostly underground so is not known for any spectacular structures, but it did have some major tunnels, like the one below Mt Paterno which measured over 1900 metres.

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In all, the main channel was over 96 km long, and had between 12 and 14 branches to towns along its route. These towns included Nola, Pompeii, Neapolis, Puteoli, Cumae and Baiae, with possibly a branch to Herculaneum, although evidence of this is sparse.

The route passed to the north of Mount Vesuvius and then onto Neapolis, to terminate at the Roman naval base of Misenum. Here, it flowed into the huge cistern of Piscina Mirabilis (pictured left).

The branch serving Pompeii ended at the Castellum Aquae (pictured above) in the north of the city, situated next to the Vesuvius Gate.

The Castellum Aquae (pictured above), sits at the highest point of Pompeii, some 34 metres higher than the lowest point in the city to the south around the Stabia Gate. The building contains a circular, domed cistern, 5.7m in diameter and 4.3m high into which the aqueduct flowed.

The water flowed out of the cistern by way of the three principal branches of the urban water network (pictured right).

Lead pipework, buried to a depth of 60cm under the pavements carried the water to a series of secondary water towers intended to lower the water pressure.

Thirteen of these towers are dotted around the city, each of a different height to provide a suitable water pressure. The towers in turn fed water to the neighbouring properties and public fountains. The photographs below shows typical fountains from Herculaneum and Pompeii.

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However, large consumers of water such as the baths and commercial businesses like the fullers needed the large volumes of water that only the aqueduct could provide, so there was pressure on the council to restore the supply as soon as possible.
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While the existing network of pipes was being dug up and repaired, it seems temporary piping was laid at street level to distribute water.

Pompeii's water supply was seriously damaged by the earthquake of AD62.
Immediately after the earthquake all water from the aqueduct was cut off and citizens had to rely on the rainwater collected in their own cisterns.
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Drainage and Sewers

Apart from the area around the Forum, there was no proper drainage in Pompeii. This was probably due to the fact that Pompeii was a relatively old City: had it been newer, like neighbouring Herculaneum, a sewer system would have been part of the original town planning.

In Pompeii the paved streets themselves acted as a drainage network. The overflow from the water supply (at public fountains, etc) ran down the streets together with waste water from latrines and other sources. This overflow must have run permanently and would have helped to clean the streets.
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The running water followed the natural slope of the streets and left the city through outlets in the wall near the city gates. Because of the perpetually flowing water, however, stepping stones were required to cross the streets as can be seen in the above photograph.

In Herculaneum, as previously stated, there was a planned system of drains and sewers. One such sewer that has been partially excavated runs down the eastern side of Cardo V under Insula Orientalis II, referred to as the systema fognario. The photograph (right) shows Cardo V, looking south - the sewer runs under the buildings on the left-hand side of the picture. There is a major branch (from the area of the palaestra) joining this sewer at a point opposite the thermopolium at the corner of the Lower Decumanus and Cardo V.

The sewer is no mean undertaking, substantially built in brick and varying in width from 750mm in the main sewer in Cardo V to over 2 metres in the branch to the palaestra.
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In general the height of the sewer is in the order of 3 metres with an arched soffit. Unfortunately we have no photographs of the sewer, but this link displays a photograph of the branch to the palaestra. For fuller information on the systema fognario, please visit the appropriate page on the Herculaneum Conservation Project website.

Many houses, and certainly most upper floor apartments, did not have main drainage. This is not susprising, since most households also did not have running water, but had to fetch water from the street fountains. Anything resembling water closets, seats sited over running water, must have been rare in private housing. Some houses seem to have had cess-pits, but mostly people used commodes or chamber pots which were later emptied down a nearby drain, or loaded onto the wagons taking out the night soil.

There were, however, public latrines. They seem to have been a normal part of public baths, with which they could share water supply and drainage; they were also likely to be found at other convenient sites. It seems likely that access was free, but perhaps there was a token payment when they were separate from the baths. Public lavatories were commonly comfortable places, where one might sit and read or otherwise socialise.

Public urinals, on the other hand, were simply large jars, dolia, cut short for convenience and hence often called dolia curta, which were regularly emptied and the contents sold to the fullers. Urine was bought by the fullers as irt was used particularly for cleaning woolen material.

The disposal of excrement not washed down the sewers must have been a problem. It was presumably often take out of the city as night soil and dumped in open pits, into which all sorts of other refuse was also thrown. Agricultural writers point out that it could be aged into useful manure, but because the Roman diet was cereal based, the human manure would have taken longer to degrade than that of grass eaters.

Communications

Paved roads initially began with the paved streets of Rome. With the conquest of Italy, roads (viae) were extended from Rome to outlying municipalities. These roads basically conformed to a standard laid down in the 'Twelve Tables', dated to approximately 450 BC, which specified that a road should be 8 feet wide where straight and 16 where curved.

The over-riding purpose of the Roman road system was to provide for the needs of the army: to supply garrisons in Italy and later in the provinces and to allow for the rapid movement of troops. For this reason the building and maintenance of roads was made a military responsibility. Municipalities, however, were responsible for their own roads (viae vicinales).

Roman engineers built roads that were generally straight. Although this directness provided for the shortest route between two points, it could result in impractically steep inclines. Over time Romans chose routes which, though longer, were more practical.

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The roads connecting cities (viae) were generally centrally placed in the countryside. Secondary roads (viae rusticae) connected settlements off the main route. Beyond the secondary roads were dirt tracks (viae terrenae).

The main road passing through the region was the Via Popilia which connected Capua with Rhegium in the toe of Italy. This road connected with the Via Appia at Capua and hence led to Rome. The Via Popilia passed through Nuceria (present day Nocera), about 14km from Pompeii following the approximate route of the A30/E841.

A network of secondary roads connected Pompeii and the other settlements in the area with each other and Nuceria. Pompeii was ideally placed for trade as it was at the mouth of the River Sarnus (todays River Sarno) as well as being at the junction of several of these secondary roads linking Neapolis, Nuceria and Stabiae.

Beyond the limits of the city were the lands on which it thrived, the Ager Pompeianus. This territory stretched from the River Sarnus in the south to Vesuvius in the north; likewise it stretched from Nola in the east westwards to the sea, to include the ancient site of Oplontis.

South of the River Sarnus was the territory of Stabiae, the Ager Stabianus.

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Reg I, Ins 4

clemio — Wed, 05 Aug 2009 09:13:27 CDT

General Description

Reg I, Ins 4 lies at the junction of the Via Dell'Abbondanza and the Via Stabiana. The insula has sustained considerable damage in the past and most of the properties are in a semi-ruinous or ruinous condition.

The insula contains mostly commercial properties as can be seen from the detailed list below. The most prestigious domestic property in the insula is the House of the Citharist, one of the largest houses in Pompeii. Although in a poor general state, the house is still an impressive property and worth a visit.

Plan of the Insula

Key:

.A. House of the Citharist

Full List of Properties

Door No.	Property Name or Description	Area (Sq.m)	No of Rooms	Description, Decoration and Comments
1-3	Unnamed house	230	8	Fairly standard atrium/garden plan. Atrium. Tablinum. Peristyle . Nos.1 and 3 are shops linked with the atrium. Stairs up. Little surviving decoration. Semi-ruinous.
4	Shop	38	2	Undecorated shop with back room. Window in south wall overlooking No.3. Semi-ruinous state.
5,25	House of the Citharist	2318	50+	2 atria. 3 peristyles. 50+ rooms. Private baths suite. One of the largest houses in Pompeii. Little surviving decoration. Bronze statue of Apollo Citharoedus.
6	Shop	22	2	Undecorated shop with back room. Linked to atrium of No.5. Ruinous state.
7	Fullonica of Passaratus and Maenianus	66	3	3 undecorated rooms. Ruinous state.
8	Shop	16	1	Undecorated single room with stairs up. Ruinous state.
9	Unnamed house	231	11	Atrium. Tablinum. Stairs up. Little decoration. Ruinous state.
10	Shop	22	1	Undecorated single room. Ruinous state.
11	Caupona of Copiosus	66	4	4 undecorated rooms. Ruinous state.
12	Shop/bakery	218	6	6 rooms. Millstones. Oven. Stairs up. No decoration. Linked to No.17. Ruinous state.
13	Shop	52	2	Undecorated shop with back room (left rear). Oven. Linked to No.14. Ruinous state.
14	Taberna	18	1	Undecorated single room with stairs up. Plaster remnants. Linked to No.13. Ruinous state.
15	Taberna D. Junius Proculus	35	1	Undecorated single room. Plaster remnants. Linked to No.16. Ruinous state.
16	Shop	13	1	Undecorated single room. Plaster remnants. 2 niches on south wall. Linked to No.15. Ruinous state.
17	Shop	32	2	Undecorated shop with back room. Plaster remnants. Linked to Nos.16 and 12. Ruinous state.
18	Taberna of Sabinus	37	2	Undecorated shop with stairs up. Back room. Plaster remnants. Ruinous state.
19	Shop	36	2	Undecorated shop with back room. Plaster remnants. Ruinous state.
20-21	Shop	18	1	Shop at No.20. Undecorated single room. Stairs up at No.21.
22	Casa del Pressorio di Terracotta	152	11	Long entrance passage (fauces). Central atrium. Tablinum. 11 rooms. Plaster remnants. Marble puteal. Marble table. Ruinous state.
23-24	Shops	66	4	Undecorated shops. 2 back rooms. Linked to fauces of No.22. Ruinous state.
26	Shop with apartment	45	4	Undecorated shop with living quarters. Plaster remnants.
27	Thermopolium	41	3	Undecorated thermopolium. Counter with hearth. Back room. Latrine. Plaster remnants.
28	House of Q. Octavius Romulus	113	6	Atrium. Stables. Plaster remnants. Blocked up link to No.25.

Tour of the Insula

To examine a featured building in more detail, select it from the above list. Where there is one than one property of interest in the insula, the buildings are arranged in order of reference number, which may not necessarily be the route chosen when actually visiting the site.

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Building of Eumachia

clemio — Tue, 04 Aug 2009 06:02:18 CDT

Description of the Building (Reg VII, Ins 9, 1)

This large building, situated on the east side of the Forum between the Temple of Vespasian and the Comitium was built by the priestess Venus Eumachia for the corporation of weavers, dyers and launderers.

The building is as large as the Basilica, consisting of a impressive courtyard surrounded by a two-storey colonnade.
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The entrance corridor leads to the interior courtyard where buying and selling of cloth (presumably) took place. A criptoporticus runs along 3 sides of a porch-like structure at the rear of the courtyard.
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Of the fine facade that once faced the Forum only the marble cornice, decorated with acanthus leaves and birds (above and left) remains, the rest being rebuilt of brick after the earthquake of 62AD.
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Two small rooms flank the entrance corridor, in one of which is to be found a large vase used to collect the urine utilized in the fullonicas for the degreasing of cloth.
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At the end of the portico are three apses which contained statues of Tiberius, Drusus and, between them, a statue of Livia, hailed as the Augustan Concordia.
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In the back wing is a niche with a statue of Eumachia (pictured right) dedicated by the launderers (the original of the statue can be seen in the Archeological Museum of Naples).
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Scattered bases around the courtyard imply that it must have contained a considerable amount of statuary, but the statues had most likely been removed after the great earthquake.

This building shows the wealth and power of the Eumachii family in that they presumed to erect in Pompeii a small scale imitation of the imperial forum. Ostentatious in life, they were no less so in death, as seen by the impressive sepulchre that Eumachia had built for herself and her family.

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Temple of Vespasian

clemio — Tue, 28 Jul 2009 14:23:57 CDT

Description of the Temple (Reg VII, Ins 9, 2)

The temple lies between the Temple of the Lares Publici and the Building of Eumachia on the eastern side of the Forum.

The limited space available determined the irregularity of the plan, set at an angle with respect to the axis of the forum. The facade is in brick, parallel to the forum portico, projecting beyond the neighbouring Building of Eumachia.
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The raised podium is surrounded on 3 sides by a wall decorated with a pattern of large blind windows framed by pilaster strips and with triangular and curved pediments set over them.

The temple stands at the centre of the back wall of the courtyard with a cella in brick with two antae set on a tall podium accessible from the back by two side-stairs.

The cella, which still has the base on which the cult statue was set, was originally preceded by a tetrastyle porch. In front of the podium, is a marble altar decorated with reliefs, one of which is the ritual sacrifice of a bull (pictured left and right).

In the relief the priest, his head covered by his toga, pours a drink. Two lictores, a flute player and two boys bring the sacred instruments, while the bull is led to the altar by the executioner and his assistant.
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The temple had not been completed at the time of the eruption. A door in the back wall gave access to three rooms used by the personnel in charge of the temple and as storerooms.

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Suburban District

clemio — Mon, 20 Jul 2009 09:40:45 CDT

The Suburban District lies outside the town walls to the south of Insula Orientalis I. It is accessed via the Marina Gate at the southern end of Cardo V (also from a narrow ramp at the southern end of Cardo IV).

It is the ancient waterfront area and includes the Suburban Thermae and a large sacred area of which little remains except for a marble statue and altar.

The photograph (right) is a view of Herculaneum looking north-east towards Vesuvius. The buildings along the escarpment at the southern end of Insula IV are (from left to right) the House of the Mosaic Atrium and the House of the Deer. The access ramp to the Suburban District is visible next to the sacred area (bottom right).

Terrace of M. Nonius Balbus

The Terrace of Marcus Nonius Balbus lies at the foot of the ramp from Cardo IV. It gives access to the Suburban Thermae to the east and to the Sacred Area to the west.
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Lying directly over the boathouses that lined the shore, it must have provided magnificent views over the Bay of Naples. The statue of Herculaneum's benefactor,M. Nonius Balbus, together with a memorial altar occupy pride of place on the terrace.

Suburban Thermae

The Suburban Thermae seem to have been a gift to the town by Proconsul Nonius Balbus. His statue and a memorial altar once stood in front of the building, which also gave access to the house thought to be the Balbus home.

The Suburban Thermae held up remarkably well against the eruption. The fact that the shoreline was pushed nearly half a mile out to sea shows that the volcanic avalanche had not lost any of its strength when it reached the baths.

The building owes its survival to its construction - walls of brick-faced concrete with vaults supporting the roof. Debris pouring in through a skylight and filling the interior may also have helped its survival by offsetting the pressure from outside.
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The main entrance to the baths consists of a portal with columns supporting a gable.

The vestibule, pictured above and opposite, has a pierced vault supported by four plain columns topped by rounded arches. The vestibule give access to all areas of the baths.

As can be seen in the adjoining photographs, a marble bust of Apollo stands on a pilaster which used to emit a stream of water into the basin below.

Unlike the Central Thermae, these baths were not segregated, and were probably used alternately by both sexes.

A single room, most of which is occupied by a pool, served as a combined apodyterium and frigidarium.

Between this room and the tepidarium was a waiting area decorated with splendid stuccoes and marbles together with marble benches along each of the walls.

The tepidarium, with its large pool, adjoins a rather small laconicum. The caldarium has a pool that was used for hot swims, and a basin that provided cold water.

The photograph on the right is of the frigidarium come apodyterium. In the extreme left of the photograph is a door that was plugged (and remains so) by the volcanic debris from the eruption.

Beyond the caldarium is the boiler room which served the whole complex.

The Sacred Area (Area Sacra)

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This area contained two sacelli at its western end and, like the Terrace of M. Nonius Balbus, was built over boathouses lining the ancient shore.
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The Area Sacra lies to the west of the Terrace of M. Nonius Balbus, accessed by a passageway at its eastern end where the ramp from Cardo IV joins the terrace.
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In the western-most sacellum, the Sacellum of the Four Gods (far left beyond the building with the green door in the top photograph) are displayed three magnificent altar reliefs (pictured opposite). One of the reliefs is shown in detail above.

The reliefs on site are, unfortunately, just modern copies, but the originals can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples.

Shoreline

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Close by, escape boats were found that the fleeing inhabitants had, unfortunately, not been able to use.
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Dr Sara Bisel, a physical anthropologist from the United States, was called in to oversee the excavation and study the bones.
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Through the chemical analysis of those remains, Dr Bisel was able to gain greater insight into the health and nutrition of the citizens of Herculaneum.
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Her analysis showed that the average male citizen stood 1.70m tall while his female counterpart was in the order of 1.55m.

In 1981, Italian public works employees, under the direction of Dr. Giuseppe Maggi, found bones next to the ancient beach whilst digging a drainage trench.

Twelve stone boathouses lined the shoreline: it would appear that some inhabitants had probably taken shelter in these boathouses to wait for the worst of the eruption to pass.
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Their teeth were in better condition than their contemporary equivalent, thanks to a lack of sugar in their diet. Quantities of lead were found in some of the skeletons, however, which led to speculation of accidental lead poisoning via the water supply (which was carried through lead piping) and from drinking cheap wine sweetened with syrup boiled in lead pots.

Among the artifacts found were surgical instruments and women's jewelry. The skeleton of a woman in the photograph above still wears two rings on her left hand.

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Villa Imperiale

clemio — Fri, 17 Jul 2009 05:47:43 CDT

Description of the Villa

The villa, on the south side of the Via Marina as it approaches the Marina Gate (pictured below), was initially excavated by Amedeo Maiuri in 1947. Built during the last decade of the first century BC, it comprised one of the so-called hanging houses, constructed on the public ground on the slopes to the south and west of the city walls.
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Following the earthquake of AD62 the villa was redecorated in part in the fourth style. The villa was subsequently acquired at the order of the Imperial Prefect, Tito Suedio Clemente, on behalf of the state. At the same time the terrace of the Temple of Venus above was extended, requiring the demolition of the upper floor of the villa.
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The entry at the Marina Gate gives access to a long porticoed ambulatory which leads to the main entrance of the villa. The ambulatory is open on one side overlooking a gardened area. The decoration of the rear wall is in the third style (pictured left).
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Facing the entrance is a vestibule followed by a large reception room (A). The ceilings of the vestibule and of the reception room were decorated with stucco caskets and paintings in the fourth style on a black ground. The walls contained 3 large mythological panels including that of the Death of Icarus, pictured below and the Murder of the Minotaur by Theseus.
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Off the entrance vestibule is a cubiculum (B), decorated in the third style on a white ground with a raised alcoved area on its east side.
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To the south of the reception area is the triclinium (C), which overlooks a peristyled garden (D). The triclinium is decorated in the fourth style with large landscape panels on a red ground while the walls of the peristyle have red panels on a black ground.

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Map of Pompeii

clemio — Thu, 16 Jul 2009 13:37:42 CDT

Map of Pompeii

Key:

<> Public Buildings <> Temples <> Shops/businesses <> Private Houses <> Notable Private Houses <> Unexcavated Areas

Index of Buildings

(a) Numbering of Buildings in Pompeii

Pompeii, like Herculaneum, has been split into separate areas for archaeological purposes. The numbering in Herculaneum is less complex because of its size, being divided simply into Insulae or blocks of buildings (numbered in Roman numerals), with individual buildings having their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3).

Pompeii, however, has an additional level of numbering. It has been divided firstly into 9 regions (Regio), numbered in Roman numerals. Each of these regions contains several Insulae which are numbered 1, 2 3, etc. As with Herculaneum, each building within an insula has its own entrance number, again numbered 1, 2, 3 etc. For example, the House of Trebius Valens is labelled (Reg III, Ins 2, 1).

(b) Public Buildings

Name of Building	Location	Ref No	Rating
Amphitheatre	South of the Via dell'Abbondanza near the Sarno Gate.	II.6	...* * *
Baths
.....Central Baths	At the intersection of Via Stabiana and Via di Nola.	IX.4.5	...* *
.....Forum Baths	At the junction of the Via del Foro and the Via delle Terme.	VII.5	...* * *
.....Stabian Baths	At the intersection of Via Stabiana and Via dell'Abbondanza.	VII.1.8	...* * *
.....Suburban Baths	On an artificial terrace just outside the Marina Gate.	N/A	...* * *
Basilica	Near the west corner of the Forum.	VIII.1.2	...* * *
Building of Eumachia	On the east side of the Forum next to Via dell'Abbondanza.	VII.9.1	...* *
Forum	On the western side of Pompeii near the Marina Gate.	VII.8	...* * *
Large Palaestra	South of Via dell'Abbondanza on the east side of Pompeii.	II.7	...* * *
Large Theatre	On Via Stabiana south of Via dell'Abbondanza.	VIII.1.8	...* * *
Macellum	In the north-east corner of the Forum.	VII.7.7-8	...* *
Odeon	On Via Stabiana south of the Large Theatre.	VIII.7.19	...* * *
Temples
.....Doric Temple	Forms the southern part of the Triangular Forum.	VIII.7.30	...* *
.....Temple of Apollo	North of the Basilica on the western side of the Forum.	VII.7.32	...* *
.....Temple of Fortuna Augusta	At the corner of Via del Foro and Via della Fortuna Augusta.	VII.4.1	...* *
.....Temple of Isis	Next to the Large Theatre on Via del Tempio di Iside.	VIII.7.28	...* * *
.....Temple of Jupiter	On the north side of the Forum.	VIII.7.25	...* *
.....Temple of the Lares Publici	Next to the Macellum on the east side of the Forum.	VII.9.3	...* *
.....Temple of Venus	To the right on entering the city by way of the Porta Marina.	VIII.1.5	...* *
.....Temple of Vespasian	North of the Building of Eumachia on east side of the Forum.	VII.9.2	...* *
Triangular Forum	On via dei Teatri facing the Large Theatre.	VIII.7.30	...* *

(c) Notable Private Houses Public buildings are treated here as distinct group of buildings and, as such, are given their own section on this site. Private houses, however, because of their number, have been grouped by region according to the above map. You may access each dwelling by name from the list below, or select a region and explore from there. I want to explore: Regio I, Regio II, Regio III, Regio V, Regio VI, Regio VII, Regio VIII, Regio IX, Outside the Walls ..

(c) Notable Private Houses

Public buildings are treated here as distinct group of buildings and, as such, are given their own section on this site. Private houses, however, because of their number, have been grouped by region according to the above map. You may access each dwelling by name from the list below, or select a region and explore from there.

I want to explore:

Regio I, Regio II, Regio III, Regio V, Regio VI, Regio VII, Regio VIII, Regio IX, Outside the Walls

House Name *	Name used on this Site	Ref No	Location	Rating
Albucius Celsus (House of L.)	House of the Silver Wedding	V.2.i	Via del Nozze d'Argento	...* *
Ancient Hunt (House of the)	House of the Wild Boar	VII.4.48	Via della Fortuna Augusta	...* *
Apollo (House of)	House of Apollo	VI.7.23	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Ara Maxima (House of the)	House of the Ara Maxima	VI.16.15	Via del Vesuvio	...* *
Arrius Polites (House of T.)	House of the Moralist	III.4.2-3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Bear (House of the)	House of the Bear	VII.2.45	Via degli Augustali	...* *
Boar (House of the Wild)	House of the Wild Boar	VII.4.48	Via della Fortuna Augusta	...* *
Bracelet (House of the Golden)	House of the Golden Bracelet	VI.17.42	Via Consolare	...* *
Caecilius Jucundus (House of L.)	House of L. Caecilius Jucundus	V.1.26	Via del Vesuvio	...* *
Capitals (Villa of the Figured)	Villa of the Figured Capitals	N/A	Via dei Sepolcri	...*
Castor and Pollox (House of)	House of the Dioscuri	VI.9.6	Via di Mercurio	...* * *
Ceii (House of the)	House of the Ceii	I.6.15	Via del Cryptoportico	...* *
Ceius Secundus (House of)	House of the Ceii	I.6.15	Via del Cryptoportico	...* *
Celsus (House of L. Albucius)	House of the Silver Wedding	V.2.i	Via del Nozze d'Argento	...* *
Centennial (House of the)	House of the Centennial	IX.8.6	Via di Nola	...* *
Chaste Lovers (House of the)	House of the Chaste Lovers	IX.12.6	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Cicero (Villa of)	Villa of Cicero	N/A	Via dei Sepolcri	...*
Citharist (House of the)	House of the Citharist	I.4.5	Via Stabiana	...* *
Columns (Villa of the Mosaic)	Villa of the Figured Capitals	N/A	Via dei Sepolcri	...*
Communis (House of M. Herenulli)	House of Apollo	VI.7.23	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Cornelius Rufus (House of)	House of Cornelius Rufus	VIII.4.15	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Cornelius Tages (House of P.)	House of the Ephebus	I.7.10-12	Off Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Cossius Libanus (House of)	House of Sallust	VI.2.4	Via Consolare	...* *
Cubicula (House of the Floral)	House of the Orchard	I.9.5-7	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Cupids (House of the Golden)	House of the Golden Cupids	VI.16.7	Via del Vesuvio	...* * *
Cryptoporticus (House of the)	House of the Cryptoporticus	I.6.2	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Diadumeni (House of the)	House of the Diadumeni	IX.1.20	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Diomedes (Villa of)	Villa of Diomedes	N/A	Via dei Sepolcri	...*
Dioscuri (House of the)	House of the Dioscuri	VI.9.6	Via di Mercurio	...* * *
Ephebus (House of the)	House of the Ephebus	I.7.10-12	Off Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Epidius Hymenaeus (House of M.)	House of the Moralist	III.4.2-3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Epidius Rufus (House of M.)	House of the Diadumeni	IX.1.20	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Euplia (House of)	House of the Orchard	I.9.5-7	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Europa (House of the Ship)	House of the Ship Europa	I.15.3	Via di Castricio	...* *
Fabius Rufus (House of M.)	House of M. Fabius Rufus	VII.16.17-22	Vico del Farmacista	...* *
Faun (House of the)	House of the Faun	VI.12.2	Via della Fortuna Augusta	...* * *
Felix (House of Julia)	House of Julia Felix	II.4.2	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Figured Capitals (Villa of the)	Villa of the Figured Capitals	N/A	Via dei Sepolcri	...*
Floral Cubicula (House of the)	House of the Orchard	I.9.5-7	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Fountain (House of the Large)	House of the Large Fountain	VI.8.22	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Fountain (House of the Small)	House of the Small Fountain	VI.8.23-24	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Fronto (House of M. Lucretius)	House of M. Lucretius Fronto	V.4.a	Vico di M. L. Frontone	...* *
Garden of Hercules (House of the)	House of the Garden of Hercules	II.8.6	Via di Nocera	...* *
Geometric Mosaics (House of the)	House of the Geometric Mosaics	VIII.2.14-16	Via delle Scuole	...* *
Golden Bracelet (House of the)	House of the Golden Bracelet	VI.17.42	Via Consolare	...* *
Golden Cupids (House of the)	House of the Golden Cupids	VI.16.7	Via del Vesuvio	...* * *
Hercules (House of the garden of)	House of the Garden of Hercules	II.8.6	Via di Nocera	...* *
Herenulli Communis (House of M.)	House of Apollo	VI.7.23	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Hunt (House of the Ancient)	House of the Wild Boar	VII.4.48	Via della Fortuna Augusta	...* *
Hymenaeus (House of M. Epidius)	House of the Moralist	III.4.2-3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Ilion Sanctuary (House of the)	House of the Lararium	I.6.4	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Imperiale (Villa)	Villa Imperiale	VIII1.a	Off Via Marina	...*
Jucundus (House of L. Caecilius)	House of L. Caecilius Jucundus	V.1.26	Via del Vesuvio	...* *
Julia Felix (House of)	House of Julia Felix	II.4.2	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Julius Polybius (House of)	House of C. Julius Polybius	IX.13.3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Labyrinth (House of the)	House of the Labyrinth	VI.11.9	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Lararium (House of the)	House of the Lararium	I.6.4	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Lararium of Achilles (House of the)	House of the Lararium	I.6.4	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Large Fountain (House of the)	House of the Large Fountain	VI.8.22	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Libanus (House of Cossius)	House of Sallust	VI.2.4	Via Consolare	...* *
Loreius Tiburtinus (House of)	House of Octavius Quartio	II.2.2	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Lovers (House of the Chaste)	House of the Chaste Lovers	IX.12.6	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Lucretius Fronto (House of M.)	House of M. Lucretius Fronto	V.4.a	Vico di M. L. Frontone	...* *
Maxima (House of the Ara)	House of the Ara Maxima	VI.16.15	Via del Vesuvio	...* *
Meleager (House of)	House of Meleager	VI.9.2	Via di Mercurio	...* * *
Menander (House of)	House of Menander	I.10.4	Via del Cryptoportico	...* * *
Moralist (House of the)	House of the Moralist	III.4.2-3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Mosaic Columns (Villa of the)	Villa of the Figured Capitals	N/A	Via dei Sepolcri	...*
Mosaics (House of the Geometric)	House of the Geometric Mosaics	VIII.2.14-16	Via delle Scuole	...* *
Mysteries (Villa of the)	Villa of the Mysteries	N/A	Off Via dei Sepolcri	...* * *
Naples (House of the Prince of)	House of the Prince of Naples	VI.15.8	Vico Dei Vettii	...* *
Narcissus (House of)	House of the Ara Maxima	VI.16.15	Via del Vesuvio	...* *
Naviglio (Casa del)	House of the Ship	VI.10.11	Via della Fortuna	...*
Octavius Quartio (House of M.)	House of Octavius Quartio	II.2.2	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Orchard (House of the)	House of the Orchard	I.9.5-7	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Pansa (House of)	House of Pansa	VI.6.1	Via dell Terme	...* *
Pansa (House of Cuspius)	House of Paquius Proculus	I.7.1	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Paquius Proculus (House of)	House of Paquius Proculus	I.7.1	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Perfumer (House of the)	House of the Garden of Hercules	II.8.6	Via di Nocera	...* *
Pinarius (House of)	House of the Ara Maxima	VI.16.15	Via del Vesuvio	...* *
Poet (House of the Tragic)	House of the Tragic Poet	VI.8.3	Via della Fullonica	...* * *
Polybius (House of Julius)	House of Julius Polybius	IX.13.3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Polites (House of T. Arrius)	House of the Moralist	III.4.2-3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Prince of Naples (House of the)	House of the Prince of Naples	VI.15.8	Vico Dei Vettii	...* *
Proculus (House of Paquius)	House of Paquius Proculus	I.7.1	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Quartio (House of Octavius)	House of Octavius Quartio	II.2.2	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Rufus (House of Cornelius)	House of Cornelius Rufus	VIII.4.15	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Rufus (House of M. Epidius)	House of the Diadumeni	IX.1.20	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Rufus (House of M. Fabius)	House of M. Fabius Rufus	VII.16.17-22	Vico del Farmacista	...* *
Sallust (House of)	House of Sallust	VI.2.4	Via Consolare	...* *
Satrii Valentes (House of L.)	House of Venus in the Shell	II.3.3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Secundus (House of L. Ceius)	House of the Ceii	I.6.15	Via del Cryptoportico	...* *
Ship (House of the)	House of the Ship	VI.10.11	Via della Fortuna	...*
Ship Europa (House of the)	House of the Ship Europa	I.15.3	Via di Castricio	...* *
Silver Wedding (House of the)	House of the Silver Wedding	V.2.i	Via del Nozze d'Argento	...* *
Small Fountain (House of the)	House of the Small Fountain	VI.8.23-24	Via di Mercurio	...* *
Surgeon (House of the)	House of the Surgeon	VI.1.10	Via Consolare	...* *
Tages (House of P. Cornelius)	House of the Ephebus	I.7.10-12	Off Via dell' Abbondanza	...* *
Tragic Poet (House of the)	House of the Tragic Poet	VI.8.3	Via della Fullonica	...* * *
Trebius Valens (House of)	House of Trebius Valens	III.2.1	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Tiburtinus (House of Loreius)	House of Octavius Quartio	II.2.2	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Valens (House of Trebius)	House of Trebius Valens	III.2.1	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Valentes (House of L. Satrii)	House of Venus in the Shell	II.3.3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Venus in the Shell (House of)	House of Venus in the Shell	II.3.3	Via dell' Abbondanza	...* * *
Vettii (House of the)	House of the Vettii	VI.15.1	Vico Dei Vettii	...* * *
Wedding (House of the Silver)	House of the Silver Wedding	V.2.i	Via del Nozze d'Argento	...* *
Wild Boar (House of the)	House of the Wild Boar	VII.4.48	Via della Fortuna	...* *

* Note..

Private houses in Pompeii have been referred to by a variety names in the past. The names used on this site are the most commonly used today, but for ease of access the table includes other known aliases for the same property.

Private houses in Pompeii have been referred to by a variety names in the past. The names used on this site are the most commonly used today, but for ease of access the table includes other known aliases for the same property.

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Villa of Cicero

clemio — Thu, 16 Jul 2009 10:25:10 CDT

Description of the Villa

The Villa of Cicero was initially excavated in 1759 under the direction of the Accademia Ercolanese, set up by Carlos III de Borbón specifically to produce scientific accounts of the monuments that were coming to light.

In the first years sites were explored haphazardly, and among these sites was the large complex of the Villa of Cicero.
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During the excavations many fine frescoes and mosaics were discovered. These, like the scene of street musicians (below) and that of the 'Advice of the Sorceress' pictured right, can be viewed at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples.
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The mosaic of the street musicians illustrates a scene from a play by Menander. Followed by a dwarf, a woman accompanies on her flute the dance of two men, one of whom plays the cymbals while the other beats a frame drum.

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The villa, on the south side of the road leading from the Herculaneum Gate, was re-buried in 1763. Accordingly the plan of the villa (above) is rather sketchy. The entrance (A), pictured left, opened off the Via dei Sepolcri and gave access a large sprawling property.
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Villa of the Mysteries

clemio — Thu, 16 Jul 2009 10:23:47 CDT

Description of the Villa

Beyond the Villa of Diomedes lies the Villa of the Mysteries, famous for having one of the most important decorative fresco collections in the Roman world.

The villa originally dates from the 2nd century BC, but its current layout was set between 70 and 60BC.

After the earthquake of AD62 the villa was extensively remodelled, changing what had been a patrician villa into a working farmhouse, albeit a rather grandiose one.
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South of the entrance were the service rooms which included the servants' kitchen (G) and the various rooms off the courtyard (H).

The courtyard, which had access to the south side of the peristyle, had a bakery (I) on its north side and contained the main kitchen.
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On the south side of the tablinum a doorway leads to a small room (pictured above) which contains vivid figured frescoes, included among them one of a dancing satyr (pictured below).
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Beyond this room to the east is the room which contains the renowned fresco of the Dionysiac Mysteries (P), details from which are pictured right.

Originally an oecus, the room was later turned into a triclinium. The fresco adorning the walls dates from the first century BC and is one of the most famous of all ancient art.
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The subject involves the initiation of a bride to the Dionysiac mysteries, whose cult was widespread in the region despite the existence of imperial sanctions (Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus).
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The frieze depicting the rite is 17 metres long and 3 metres high, and is vividly painted, as the accompanying pictures testify.
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Apart from the fine frescoes, a major find, a statue of Livia, can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples.

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The ground plan is basically square as illustrated above, laid out on a plot of sloping ground. The photograph left shows the deep excavation and is a view looking east along the south east portico.

The original entrance (A) was on the opposite side of the villa to the current entrance and led directly into the area around the peristyle (F). The rooms north of the entrance passage, in particular rooms (B) to (E) on the plan above were associated with the introduction of farming facilities. Room (D) was used in the production of wine, and retains much of its equipment (pictured below).
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The southwest corner of the peristyle (pictured below) opens onto a small tetrastyle atrium (left). This atrium in turn gives access to a private baths suite on its northern side.
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The west side of the peristyle opens onto a Tuscan atrium (K) decorated with scenes of the Nile. This atrium was the focus of the owners living area.

All the decorations in the main part of the villa are in the second style with the exception of the tablinum (Q), which has third style frescoes on a black ground. The tablinum leads from the atrium to an exedra (L) which is flanked by porticos (M).
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Villas outside the Walls

clemio — Thu, 16 Jul 2009 10:22:38 CDT

Via Marina

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To the north of the Via Marina are the remains of several buildings including the Suburban Baths.

The Via Marina leads upwards from the port to the Marina Gate (A). On the right-hand (south) side, just prior to the Gate (pictured below), lies the Villa Imperiale, which was re-discovered after the bombing of World War II. The villa is built on the city walls with views over the Bay of Naples.
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Via dei Sepolcri

Leaving by the Herculaneum Gate (A), the Via dei Sepolcri has a series of shops, the Portico of the Tabernae, on either side (coloured blue on the map) interspersed with monumental tombs. These shops had a small apartment attached with a coenaculum, or dining room, on the upper floor.
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Behind the shopping area were two villas, the Villa of Cicero and the Villa of the Figured Capitals. Beyond these lies the Villa of Diomedes.

The villa lies on the Via Ercolanense, just beyond the split in the Via dei Sepolcri. The northern arm of the junction, the Via Superiore, leads past the front of the Villa of the Mysteries, but to gain access to the property today the visitor must go by way of the Viale di Villa dei Misteri (accessed from the Via Ercolanense, just after the Villa of Diomedes).

Summary Details

Door No.	Property Name or Description	Area (Sq.m)	No of Rooms	Description, Decoration and Comments
N/A	Villa Imperiale	?	?	Irregular plan. Large reception room. Triclinium. Peristyle. Third and fourth style decoration. First excavated in 1947. Semi-ruinous state.
N/A	Villa of Cicero	5549	20+	Large sprawling villa first excavated in 1759 and subsequently reburied. Ruinous state.
N/A	Villa of Diomedes	1229	30+	Irregular plan. Peristyle. Atrium. Tablinum. Winter and summer triclinia. Large enclosed garden with central pool. Raised terrace round garden with corner belvederes. Spectacular mosaics. Semi-ruinous state.
N/A	Villa of the Figured Capitals	2932	20+	Long entrances off Via dei Sepolcri leading to two garden areas. Pergola in front of nymphaeum. Lararium. Spectacular mosaic columns. 'Blue vase'. Ruinous state.
N/A	Villa of the Mysteries	2895	30+	Irregular plan. Peristyle. Tetrestyle atrium. Tuscan atrium. Tablinum. Private bath suite. Rooms devoted to farm production. Raised portico. Second and third style decoration including the 'Dionysaic Mysteries'.

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Shops and Businesses

clemio — Mon, 13 Jul 2009 06:11:50 CDT

Map of Pompeii Showing a Selection of Commercial Premises

Pistrinum

Bread in Pompeii was produced daily in local bakeries.

The Pistrinum on Vicolo Storto (Reg VII, Ins 2, 22) belonged to N. Popidius Priscus and is a fine example of a bakery in which the whole cycle of breadmaking from milling to baking the bread was performed (pictured right).

After baking, the bread was then generally sold on in an adjoining shop, although this was not necessarily always the case.

In this establishment the equipment for the production of bread consisted of four millstones made from porous lava, a very hard wearing stone that wouldn't lose fragments and spoil the flour produced.

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To the left of the millstones in the top picture and centre in the picture on the right can be seen the oven which was used for baking the bread.

The form of the millstones resembled an hourglass with a hollow catullus rotating above a cone-shaped centre set on a masonry base.

Driving the milling process were horses or oxen yoked to a beam inserted into a slot in the catullus.
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Two rooms next to the oven were used for storage of the newly baked bread and as a granary. In this pistrinum there was no adjoining shop, so the bread must have been sold on to other shops or itinerant vendors.

The pistrinum on Cardo V in Herculaneum is very similar in style as can be seen by the photograph on the left above.

Fullonica

There were several laundries in Pompeii of which the Fullonica of Stephani (Reg I, Ins 6, 7) is a fine example. Formerly a private house, it had been completely altered to form the laundry. It was excavated in 1911 and found to be in excellent condition, allowing the whole process of laundering clothes to be examined.

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The laundry was then put in larger tubs where the clothes were again trampled in a mixture of water and degreasing substances such as soda and human or animal urine.
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Containers for the urine used in washing were found near these tubs. Fullonicae generally invited passersby to urinate in amphoras set in the lanes and near the entrances to the premises.

Dirty clothes generally arrived at the rear of the fullonica: more delicate materials were washed in the former atrium of the property, using a tub where the original impluvium had been. The less delicate clothes were processed at the rear of the building. Heavily stained clothes were initially trampled by workers in three tubs (pictured left) before joining the rest of the laundry.
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The next step in the process was to soften the fabrics which had become hardened by the urine by treating them with a special type of clay (cretae fullonicae), followed by a thorough rinsing. Clothes were then hung out to dry on the roof terrace of the building. These procedures were then followed by carding to raise the nap, clipping brushing and finally pressing.

Officina Coriariorum

However notorious for its unpleasant smell, the tannery, or officina coriariorum, was also part of urban life. Two have so far been identified, one near the Building of Eumachia, the other in a more appropriate location in the outskirts near the Stabian Gate. This tannery was the officina coriariorum of M. Vesonius Primus (Reg I, Ins 5, 2). Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. The tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. They would then pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining flesh and fat. Next, the tanner would loosen the hair fibres by soaking the skin in urine, before scraping them off with a knife.

Once the hair was gone, the tanners would remove the outer protein layer by pounding dung into the skin or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were that of dogs or pigeons. Sometimes the dung was mixed with water in a large vat, and the prepared skins were kneaded in the dung water until they became supple.
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It was this combination of urine, animal faeces and decaying flesh that made ancient tanneries so malodorous.
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Owning a tannery was not without its rewards though, as evidenced by some magnificent finds. The picture (left) is of a mosaic tabletop from the triclinium of the tannery of M. Vesonius Primus (now in Naples). The skull is crowned with a carpenter's square and plumb-bob, which dangles before its empty eyesockets (death as the great leveller), while below is an image of the ephemeral and changeable nature of life: a butterfly (the soul) atop a wheel (fortune). On each side, kept in perfect balance by death, are the symbols of wealth and power on the left (the sceptre and purple) and poverty on the right (the beggar’s scrip and stick).

Lupanar

The Lupanar (Reg VII, Ins 12, 18) is one of over twenty-five houses of prostitution known in Pompeii, although it is believed to be the only one purpose built for such use.

The others are to be found on the first floors of inns or taverns or even in private houses, or consisted of a room with a bed, accessible directly from the street. As illustration, a few of the brothels are marked on the map above.

The lupanar had ten rooms, five on the ground floor and five larger ones on the upper floor accessed by a wooden staircase (see photograph opposite). The rooms had built in masonry beds onto which mattresses were placed.

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Erotic scenes were painted above each door and the walls bore a large number of inscriptions (over 120) scratched by the clients and the working girls.

The prices were very low, one of the reasons being that these brothels were frequented by the lower levels of society and by slaves. On average the cost of a sexual service was two asses, the equivalent of the cost of a loaf of bread.

Like many areas of Roman society, prostitution was highly categorised: the delicatae and the famosae were far above the level of common prostitutes, able to entertain the best customers; others were associated with the places of their trade; the bustuariae practised their profession in the area of the necropolis; the scorta erratica plied their trade on the streets; there were also the Aelicariae, Amasiae, Amatrix, Ambubiae, Amica, Blitidae, Casuaria, Citharistriae, Copae, Cymbalistriae, Diobolares, Diversorium, Doris, Forariae, Fornix, Gallinae, Lupae, Lupanaria, Meretrix, Mimae, Noctiluae, Nonariae, Pergulae, Proseda, Prostibula, Quadrantariae, Scortum, Stabulae, Tabernae, Tugurium, and Turturilla.

Thermopolium

A thermopolium was the equivalent of a modern day cafe/bar. Hot and cold food was sold from what was usually an 'L' shaped masonry counter containing terracotta vessels.
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The map above shows the location of mainly thermopolia but sometimes the exact nature of a building becomes blurred, so some of the properties marked could very well be a mixture of both of these facilities.

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This varied from a caupona, which was more like an inn or tavern where hot meals were served to diners seated around a table.
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There are more than 160 thermopolia in Pompeii, of which almost half have marble surfaced counters (above left). For a detailed study of these bars, there is a paper by J. Clayton Fant which is well worth reading.

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House of Trebius Valens

clemio — Sun, 12 Jul 2009 09:43:37 CDT

Description of the House (Reg III, Ins 2, 1)

The House of Aulus Trebius Valens lies on the north side of Via dell' Abbondanza and was first excavated during 1913. Initially only the front of the property was excavated and it wasn't until 1915 that excavators began to clear the interior.
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The facade of the building held a collection of electoral propaganda as well as adverts for events at the amphitheatre. Unfortunately the facade and much of the front of the building was destroyed by a bomb in 1943. Only a few graffiti remain (above left).

One such inscription advertised a forthcoming event at the amphitheatre (CIL IV 7991):
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20 pairs of gladiators of Gnaeus Allius Nigidius Maius, quinquennial, and their substitutes will fight without any public expense at Pompeii.

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The interior of the house was fully excavated after restoration work in 1952. The house has a standard atrium/garden plan. On entering the atrium (B) it is the checkered polychrome decoration of the back wall of the garden, glimpsed through the tablinum, that catches the eye (pictured left and below). The rest of the house is more conventionally decorated, mostly in the third style.
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In the south west corner of the atrium a flight of stairs led to the upper floor. Next to the stairs, the cubiculum (C) is decorated in the second style, with the name of the owner scratched on one of the walls. Immediately north of this room is an ala, decorated in the third style with small studies on a white ground.

At the rear of the atrium is the tablinum (F) which overlooks, but does not give access to, the garden beyond. The tablinum is decorated in the third style with black and red panels.

In the cubiculum (C') on the east side of the atrium, the discovery of a chest with precious objects and ointment jars would seem to indicate that it was the mistress's bedroom. The walls were plainly decorated in the second style on a white ground.

On this side of the atrium there is also a rectangular hall (D) (accessed via a small room (E)) decorated in the third style with birds and other animals painted on a black ground.

In the garden, against the checkerboard decorated wall, is the summer triclinium which is sheltered by a pergola. It was served from the kitchen (I) via a service-hatch. Four bodies were found in the peristyle during the course of the excavations.

In the southeast corner of the peristyle is a 'bath suite', remarkable for its diminutive size. In their simplest form private baths consisted of two rooms; one used both as a changing room and tepidarium, and a second as the caldarium with the actual bath itself. The House of Trebius Valens has the distinction of possessing the smallest installation so far found, where two tiny rooms (J) and (K), both 1.7m wide and respectively 1.78m and 2m long served as a balneum. In order to maintain a high temperature these rooms were almost windowless, the only light being provided by a lamp or a small oculus, while the only access to the caldarium (K) was through the tepidarium (J), each having a very narrow door (50cm).

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Tragedy

clemio — Tue, 02 Jun 2009 05:22:45 CDT

In the middle years of the first century AD, life in the towns and cities round the Bay of Naples seemed comfortable and peaceful. But a brooding presence had been looming over the inhabitants all along. Vesuvius had not erupted in over a thousand years; but all that was about to change.

In AD62 there had been a severe earthquake centred close to Pompeii. According to Seneca it occurred on the 5th of February of AD62 causing considerable damage to both public and private property and leaving 'parts of the town of Herculaneum in ruins, and even the structures left standing shaky'. The damage was so severe that even 17 years after the earthquake, repairs were still being made throughout the area.

Then in early August, AD79 the tremours returned. On the 20th of August a more severe tremour shook the area around Pompeii. On the 24th of August, in the early hours, ash began to issue from Vesuvius. At about 1pm that day, however, the lives of the inhabitants changed forever.

Time	Contempory Account	Reconstructed Account
1pm 2pm 3pm	'The ninth day before the calends of September (24th August), in the early afternoon, my mother drew to my uncle's attention a cloud of unusual size and appearance. Its general appearance can best be expressed as being like an umbrella pine, for it rose to a great height on a sort of trunk and then split off into branches, I imagine because it was thrust upwards by the first blast then left unsupported as the pressure subsided, or else it was borne down by its own weight so that it spread out and gradually dispersed.'	The eruption begins. Molten rock shoots 27 kilometres into the stratosphere, turning into a flat cloud of dust and pumice. The volcanic cloud is driven south-eastwards in the direction of Pompeii and Stabiae. By 1.15pm volcanic ash and debris begins to rain down on Pompeii and the surrounding area.
4pm 5pm 6pm	'My uncle hurried to the place which everyone else was hastily leaving, steering his course straight for the danger zone. Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as the ships drew near, followed by bits of pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by the flames. For a moment my uncle wondered whether to turn back, but when the helmsman advised this, he refused, and they should make for the home of Pomponianus at Stabiae. The wind was in my uncle's favour, and he was able to bring his ship in.'	The cloud column now rises to 32 kilometres. Atmospheric conditions are now so charged that lightning pulses in the volcanic cloud. The depth of the ash and debris in Pompeii is now over a metre, causing structural damage to buildings. Some of the population decide to escape the fallout; others take shelter inside, trying to make safe their roofs by clearing some of the burden of pumice and ash.
7pm 8pm 9pm	'After his bath he lay down and dined; he was quite cheerful, or at any rate he pretended he was, which was no less courageous. Meanwhile on Mount Vesuvius broad sheets of fire and leaping flames blazed at several points, their bright glare emphasised by the darkness of night. My uncle tried to allay the fears of his companions by repeatedly declaring that these were nothing but bonfires left by the peasants in their terror, or else empty houses on fire in the districts they had abandoned.'	The eruption continues unabated. Those who have elected to stay (in Pompeii perhaps as many as 2,000) scramble about on the rising drifts of pumice or shelter under surviving roofs. So far the area around Pompeii has borne the brunt of the onslaught from Vesuvius, but time is running out for Herculaneum.
10pm 11pm 12pm	'Then he went to rest and certainly slept, for as he was a stout man his breathing was rather loud and heavy and could be heard by people coming and going outside his door.'	The eruption continues. Lightning lights up the sky. At about 1 am, as pressure briefly abates, the volcanic column collapses producing the first pyroclastic surge. This torrent of hot volvcanic debris rushes down Vesuvius and sweeps through Herculaneum with deadly effect. In a matter of moments it reaches the waterfront, killing everything in its path. Herculaneum is utterly dead.
1am 2am 3am	'By this time the courtyard giving access to his room was full of ashes mixed with pumice stones, so that its level had risen, and if he had stayed any longer he would never have got out. My uncle was wakened, came out and joined Pomponianus and the rest of the household, who had stayed up all night.'	At about 2 am a second pyroclastic surge follows the course of the first surge and roars through Herculaneum burying the town and reshaping the shoreline. Pompeii has so far escaped these damaging surges.
4am 5am 6am	'They debated whether to remain indoors or take their chances in the open. After comparing the risks they chose the latter. As a protection against falling objects they put pillows on their heads tied down with cloths. Elsewhere there was daylight, but they were still in darkness. My uncle decided to go down to the shore. There, a sheet was spread on the ground for my uncle to lie down, and he repeatedly called for cold water which he drank.'	At about 6 am a third pyroclastic surge heads this time towards Pompeii. It almost breaches the city walls. In Pompeii volcanic debris has now reached a depth of well over two metres. About an hour later there is a fourth surge. Again it is aimed at Pompeii. This time the dust and hot gases envelop the city killing every remaining soul, probably over 1,000. See Links and Video Clips for reference to a scientific paper on the subject.
7am 8am 9am	'Then the flames and smell of sulphur which heralded the approaching fire drove the others to take flight. Aroused, my uncle struggled to his feet, leaning on two slaves, but he immediately collapsed. I assume that his breathing was impeded by the dense fumes which blocked his windpipe - for it was constitutionally weak and narrow and often inflamed.'	A fifth surge follows minutes later. Then, at about 8 am, a sixth and final surge, the most powerful of all, sweeps down over Herculaneum and Pompeii and across blackened countryside burying or asphyxiating all it touches. Several thousand people die. The surge almost reaches Misenum across the bay.
10am 11am 12am	'And now came the ashes, but at first sparsely. Behind us (Pliny the Younger and his mother) an ominous thick smoke, spreading over the earth like a flood, followed us. We had scarcely agreed what to do when we were enveloped in night. To be heard were only the shrill cries of women, the wailing of children, the shouting of men. But the darkness lightened, and then like smoke the cloud dissolved away. Everything appeared changed - covered by a thick layer of ashes like an abundant snow fall.'	The eruption at last begins to weaken, although ash continues to fall for a day or so. Heavy rains brought on by the effects of the eruption bring mudslides to Herculaneum, completing its burial.
1pm

* Contemporary account by Pliny the Younger

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House of the Alcove

clemio — Sun, 31 May 2009 09:30:21 CDT

Location of the House (Ins IV, 3-4)

View of Cardo IV looking north, with the entrance to the House of the Alcove in the centre of the photograph on the right footpath.

Plan of the House

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...................................Plan of the House

Key:

A. Entrance on Cardo IV
B. First Court
C. Third Court
D. Biclinium
E. Corridor
F. Room with Alcove
G. Room with Featured Fresco
H. Second Court

Description

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From the entrance (A) at No.4 a passage leads directly to a small court (B) with rooms off. The picture below is of the left wall of the court.
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Opposite the biclinium, a corridor (E) with a mosaic floor leads to two remote rooms which are preceded by a lightwell. In the leftmost of these two rooms (F) is the alcove after which the house was named. In all, there are seven rooms with third and fourth style decoration with mosaic and opus sectile floors in two. Beside the main entrance, a second, raised entrance at No.3 gives access to the second floor.

Next to the House of the Mosaic Atrium on Cardo IV is the House of the Alcove. This house is actually two buildings joined together.
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As a consequence of this, the house is a mixture of plain and simple rooms combined with some highly decorated ones.
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Continuing along the axis of the entrance corridor (pictured above) is a second and larger court (H) which gives access to a suite of rooms including room (G) which has traces of fine fourth style decoration (pictured below).
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From the right hand side of the first court (B), two steps down lead to a third court (C) onto which opens a biclinium (D), with preserved wooden beds and two windows with wooden frames and iron bars still in place.
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Marina Gate

clemio — Sun, 31 May 2009 08:00:22 CDT

Location

Map of Pompeii

Description

The gate is situated at the western limit of the city on the Via Marina. To the right are the massive ramparts erected for the Temple of Venus, while on the left are the luxurious houses of the Insula Occidentalis.

A steep paved ramp leads past the suburban baths to the gate's two archways built in opus incertum: the left-hand arch was for pedestrians and the right-hand one for animals and light carts.
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Abutting the gate are the remains of what was probably warehouses. In the lower part of the gate can be seen the square blocks belonging to the old Samnite walls, dating from the 4th-2nd century BC.

Inside, the two roads, for carts and pedestrians, continue upwards, still clearly separated, under one large vault (pictured above).

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The City Gates

clemio — Sun, 31 May 2009 07:59:31 CDT

Description

Pompeii was encircled by three kilometres of defensive walls pierced by seven gates with watch towers at the weakest points on the northern and eastern flanks. The seven gates, the purple pins on the plan below, were (clockwise): the Marina Gate, the Herculaneum Gate, the Vesuvius Gate, the Nola Gate, the Sarno Gate, the Nocera Gate and the Stabia Gate. Of these, the best preserved are the Marina Gate, the Herculaneum Gate, the Nola Gate and the Stabia Gate. The Vesuvius and Sarno gates both sustained considerable damage during the eruption.

An eighth gate, the 'Capua Gate' is often reproduced on plans of Pompeii between the Vesuvius Gate and the Nola Gate. However, its existence has never been proved. Looking logically at the road layout of the city, the suggested location for a gate catering for a major artery in the area seems highly unlikely. Indeed recent excavations have shown that there was no such gate.

The City's Gates

Name of Gate	Location	Rating
Marina Gate	At the western limit of the city on the Via Marina.	...* * *
Herculaneum Gate	In the northwest corner of the city on the Via Consolare.	...* *
Vesuvius Gate	On the north western flank of the wall, on the Via del Vesuvio.	...*
Nola Gate	On the north eastern flank of the wall, at the eastern end of the Via di Nola.	...*
Sarno Gare	At the eastern limit of the city, on the Via dell' Abbondanza.	...*
Nocera Gate	On the south side of the city, at the southern end of the Via di Nocera.	...* * *
Stabia Gate	At the southern limit of the city, on the Via Stabiana.	...* *

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Regio VI

clemio — Sun, 31 May 2009 07:54:24 CDT

Regio VI occupies the north west corner of Pompeii, bounded to the south by the Via della Fortuna Augusta and to the east by the Via Stabiana.

The regio is made up of 17 insulae as shown in the graphic below. Of these, insulae 1,2, 7-9, 10-12 and 15-17 contain properties that are examined here in more detail. (Insula 17 is the northern half of what is known as the 'Insula Occendentalis'). The area is a general mix of properties, with the shops lining the streets while the houses occupy the interior of the insulae.

Plan of Regio VI

Tour of Regio VI

To examine any of the four featured insulae in Regio II in more detail, select the insula from the table below. Each featured insula has its own individual plan, a full list of all properties it contains, and expanded details of the most notable buildings.

Insula	Comments
Reg VI, Ins 1	A variety of shops and bars. Also the House of the Surgeon.
Reg VI, Ins 2	Contains a general mix of domestic and commercial properties.
Reg VI, Ins 6	A bakery, a few shops, but mostly the large House of Pansa.
Reg VI, Ins 7	Mainly domestic in nature, with a few shops and workshops.
Reg VI, Ins 8	Contains a mix of shops, bars and domestic properties.
Reg VI, Ins 9	The insula consists of five large domestic properties.
Reg VI, Ins 10	A mix of shops and dwellings, including the House of the Ship.
Reg VI, Ins 11	The northern part of the insula is generally in a more ruinous.
Reg VI, Ins 12	A few shops, but mostly one large property, the House of the Faun.
Reg VI, Ins 15	Mostly domestic properties including the House of the Vettii.
Reg VI, Ins 16	A narrow insula, especially at its northern end.
Reg VI, Ins 17	Houses take advantage of the escarpment for panoramic views.

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